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Materi Teknik Sipil - Hydrologic Analysis and Design

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Hydrologic Analysis and Design


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1 Introduction to Hydrology
Notation 2, Hydrology: The Study of Water 2, The Hydrologic Cycle 3, Hydrologic Designs 5
Analysis versus Synthesis 7
1.4.1 Water Budget Analysis and Synthesis 8, 1.4.2 A Conceptual Representation 9
The Hydrologic Budget 10, lntroduction to Professional Ethics 12
1.6.1 Case Studies: Ethical Dilemmas in a Professional Setting 13
1.6.2 Case Studies: A Question of Values 14
The Dimensions of Professionalism 14, Human Values: A Definition 16
Values in Hydrology 17, Solving Value Dilemmas 18
Rationalization 20, Concluding Thoughts 21

Contents
Problems 23, Review Questions 25
2 Statistical Methods in Hydrology
2.0 Notation 28, 2.1 lntroduction 29, 2.2 Statistical Terminology 29
2.2.1 Probability 30, 2.2.2 Random Variables 31
2.2.3 Probability for Discrete Random Variables 31
2.2.4 Probability for Continuous Random Variables 33
2.3 Moments of a Sample or Distribution Function 34
2.3.1 Mean 35, 2.3.2 Variance 36, 2.3.3 Standard Deviation 38
2.3.4 Skew 39, 2.4 Distribution Functions 40
2.4.1 Binomial Distribution 41, 2.4.2 Normal Distribution 43
2.4.3 F Distribution 44, 2.5 Hypothesis Testing 51
2.5.1 Steps of a Hypothesis Test 51, 2.5.2 Summary of Common Hypothesis Tests 56
2.6 Regression Analysis 61, 2.6.1 Principle of Least Squares 62
2.6.2 Reliability of the Regression Equation 64, 2.6.3 Correlation versus Regression 72
2.6.4 Calibration of the Multiple Linear Regression Model 76
2.6.5 Criteria for Evaluating a Multiple Regression Model 78
2.6.6 Two-Predictor Case 79, 2.6.7 Zero-Intercept Regression 83
2.7 Stepwise Regression 84, 2.7.1 Total FTest 84
2.7.2 Partial FTest 85, 2.7.3 Procedure 86
2.8 Analysis of Nonlinear Equations 87, 2.8.1 Transformation and Calibration 88
Problems 90, Review Questions 94, Discussion Question 95
3 Watershed Characteristics, 3.0 Notation 98, 3.1 lntroduction 99
3.1.1 Analysis versus Synthesis 100, 3.2 Watershed: Definition and Delineation 100
3.3 Watershed: Geomorphology 104

Contents
3.3.1 Drainage Area 104, 3.3.2 Watershed Length 104, 3.3.3 Watershed Slope 106
3.3.4 Hypsometric Curve 107, 3.3.5 Watershed Shape 109, 3.3.6 Land Cover and Use 112
3.3.7 Surface Roughness 113, 3.4 Soil Characteristics 1 13, 3.4.1 The Soil Profile 113
3.4.2 Soil Texture 1 15, 3.4.3 Soil Structure 1 16, 3.4.4 Volumetric Characteristics of Soil 11 6
3.4.5 Soil Moisture 118, 3.4.6 Hydrologic Soil Groups and Soil Cover Condition 119
3.5 Channel Geomorphology 120, 3.5.1 Channel Length 120, 3.5.2 Channelslope 121
3.5.3 Drainage Density 122, 3.5.4 Horton's Laws 122
3.5.5 Channel Cross Sections 127, 3.5.6 Channel Roughness 128
3.5.7 Uniform Flow Computations 136, 3.6 Travel Time 138, 3.6.1 Definitions 140
3.6.2 Classifying Time Parameters 140, 3.6.3 Velocity Method 142
3.6.4 Sheet-Flow Travel Time 145, 3.6.5 Empirical Formulas 151
3.6.6 Summary 154, 3.7 Runoff Curve Numbers 155, 3.7.1 Soil Group Classification 155
3.7.2 Cover Complex Classification 156, 3.7.3 Hydrologic Condition 156
3.7.4 SCS Soil Survey Reports 156, 3.7.5 Curve Number Tables 156
3.7.6 Antecedent Soil Moisture Condition 159
3.7.7 Estimation of CN Values for Urban Land Uses 161
3.7.8 Effect of Unconnected Impervious Area on Curve Numbers 162
Problems 163, Review Questions 169
Discussion Question 170, 4 Precipitation, 4.0 Notation 173, 4.1 Introduction 173
4.2 Rainfallcharacteristics 174, 4.2.1 Volume-Duration-Frequency 174, 4.2.2 Rainfall Maps 178

Contents
4.2.3 Intensity-Duration-Frequency 178, 4.2.4 Mathematical Representation of IDF Curves 179
4.2.5 Depth-Area Adjustments 183, 4.2.6 Precipitation Extremes and Means 185
4.2.7 Storm-Event lsohyetal Patterns 187, 4.3 Estimating Missing Rainfall Data 187
4.3.1 Station-Average Method 188, 4.3.2 Normal-Ratio Method 189
4.3.3 lsohyetal Method 190, 4.3.4 Quadrant Method 191
4.4 Gage Consistency 193, 4.5 Average Areal Rainfall 197
4.5.1 Station-Average Method 198, 4.5.2 Theissen Polygon Method 199
4.5.3 lsohyetal Method 200, 4.5.4 Average Rainfall for Subwatersheds 201
4.6 Development of a Design Storm 203, 4.6.1 Constant-Intensity Design Storm 203
4.6.2 The SCS 24-Hour Storm Distributions 204, 4.6.3 Comparison of Design Storms 208
4.6.4 HEC-1 Storm Distribution Options 209, 4.7 Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) 209
4.8 Summary 213, 4.8.1 Analysis and Synthesis 213
Problems 214, Review Questions 223, Discussion Question 225, 5 Frequency Analysis
5.0 Notation 228, 5.1 Introduction 229, 5.1.1 Hydrographs and Discharge 229
5.1.2 Rainfall-Runoff Association 231, 5.1.3 Runoff Frequency 233
5.2 Frequency Analysis and Synthesis 233, 5.2.1 Population versus Sample 234
5.2.2 Analysis versus Synthesis 234, 5.2.3 Probability Paper 235
5.2.4 Mathematical Model 237, 5.2.5 Procedure 237
5.2.6 Sample Moments 238, 5.2.7 Plotting Position Formulas 238
5.2.8 Return Period 239, 5.3 Population Models 240
5.3.1 The Normal Distribution 240, 5.3.2 The Log-Normal Distribution 244
5.3.3 The Log-Pearson Type Ill Distribution 252, 5.3.4 Low-Flow Frequency Analysis 255

Contents vii
5.4 Adjustments of the Frequency Curve 259, 5.4.1 Standard Errors of the Moments 260
5.4.2 Weighted Skew 261, .4.3 Confidence Intervals on a Frequency Curve 264, 5.4.4 Adjusting for Historic Floods 267, 5.4.5 Outliers 271, 5.4.6 Adjusting a Flood Record for Urbanization 276
5.4.7 Testing the Significance of Urbanization 284, 5.4.8 Zero-Flood-Records 294
5.5 Risk Assessment 301, 5.6 Partial-Duration Series 304
Problems 309, Review Questions 317, Discussion Question 31 8
6 Subsurface Hydrology, 6.0 Notation 327, 6.1 lntroduction 327
6.1.1 Ground Water: A Component of the Hydrologic Cycle 328
6.1.2 Hydrologic Classification 330, 6.2 Darcy's Law 330
6.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity 332, 6.2.2 Ground Water Velocities 334
6.3 Hydraulics of Wells: Steady State 335, 6.3.1 Unidirectional Flow: Confined Aquifer 336
6.3.2 Unidirectional Flow: Unconfined Aquifer 338, 6.3.3 Radial Flow: Confined Aquifer 339
6.3.4 Radial Flow: Unconfined Aquifer 340, 6.4 Hydraulics of Wells: Unsteady Flow 340
6.4.1 Theis Method 341, 6.4.2 Jacob's Straight-Line Method 343, 6.5 Ground Water Management 348
6.5.1 Safe Yield: Definition 349, 6.5.2 Determination of Safe Yield 349, 6.5.3 Zero Fluctuation Method 350, 6.5.4 The Average Draft Method 350, 6.5.5 The Simplified Water Balance Method 352
6.6 Analysis versus Synthesis 353, Problems 354
Review Questions 355, Discussion Questions 356
7 Peak Discharge Estimation, 7.0 Notation 359, 7.1 lntroduction 359
7.2 Historical Review 360, 7.3 Single-Return-Period Equations 362

viii Contents
7.3.1 Analysis 362, 7.3.2 Synthesis 367, 7.3.3 USGS Urban Peak Discharge Formulas 367
7.4 Index-Flood Estimation 370, 7.4.1 Analysis 372, 7.4.2 Synthesis 372
7.5 Moment Estimation 374, 7.5.1 Analysis 374, 7.5.2 Synthesis 374
7.6 Rational Method 375, 7.6.1 Procedure 375
7.6.2 Runoff Coefficients for Nonhomogeneous Areas 378
7.6.3 Designs on Subdivided Watersheds 379
7.7 The SCS Rainfall-Runoff Depth Relation 382, 7.7.1 Conceptual Model 383
7.7.2 Runoff Depth Estimation 386, 7.8 SCS Graphical Peak Discharge Method 390
7.8.1 The la/P Parameter 390, 7.8.2 Peak Discharge Computation 391
7.8.3 Pond and Swamp Adjustment 393, 7.8.4 Limitations 396
7.9 Slope-Area Method of Discharge Estimation 399, 7.10 Peak Discharge Envelope Curves 402
7.1 1 Regionalization of Hydrologic Variables 404, Problems 405, Review Questions 41 3
Discussion Question 414, 8 Hydrologic Design Methods, Notation 417, Introduction 418
Design of Roof Drainage 419, Design of Shallow Channels 421, Weir and Orifice Equations 423
8.4.1 Orifice Equation 423, 8.4.2 Weir Equation 425, Design of Pavement Drainage Inlets 427
Slotted Drain lnlet Design 430, Culvert Design 433
8.7.1 Unsubmerged lnlet and Outlet 434, 8.7.2 Submerged Inlet, Unsubmerged Outlet, Partially Full Pipe 435, 8.7.3 Submerged lnlet and Outlet 437, Estimating Detention Basin Volumes 438
8.8.1 SWM Policy Considerations 438, 8.8.2 Elements of SWM Structures 439, 8.8.3 Analysis versus Synthesis 440, 8.8.4 Planning versus Design 440, 8.8.5 A Generalized Planning Model 441

Contents
8.8.6 The Loss-of-Natural-Storage Method 443, 8.8.7 The Rational Formula Hydrograph Method 445
8.8.8 The Baker Method 445, 8.8.9 The Abt and Grigg Method 445
8.8.10 The Wycoff and Singh Method 447, 8.8.1 1 The SCS TR-55 Method 448
8.8.1 2 Comparison of Planning Methods 450, 8.9 Sizing of Detention Basin Outlet Structures 455
8.9.1 Procedure for Sizing Single-Stage Risers 456, 8.9.2 Sizing of Two-Stage Risers 460
8.9.3 Sizing of Multiple-Stage Riser Facilities 467, Problems 468, Review Questions 474
Discussion Question 475, 9 Hydrograph Analysis and Synthesis
Notation 477, Introduction 478, 9.1.1 Hydrographs and the Systems Process 478
9.1.2 Hydrograph Analysis 478, 9.1.3 Hydrograph Synthesis 481, Baseflow Separation 481
9.2.1 Constant-Discharge Baseflow Separation 481, 9.2.2 Constant-Slope Baseflow Separation 482
9.2.3 Concave Baseflow Separation 483, 9.2.4 Master-Depletion-Curve Method 485
9.2.5 Baseflow and Direct Runoff 488, Estimation of Initial Abstraction 489, Separation of Losses Using Index Methods 489, 9.4.1 Phi-Index Method 490, 9.4.2 Constant Percentage Method 493
Separation of Losses Using lnfiltration Capacity Curves 494, 9.5.1 Horton's lnfiltration Capacity Curve 494, 9.5.2 Recovery of lnfiltration Capacity 495, 9.5.3 lnfiltration Capacity Estimation After Incomplete Recovery 496, 9.5.4 Mass lnfiltration Method 498
9.5.5 Analysis and Synthesis 500, 9.5.6 The Green-Ampt Model 501, Unit Hydrograph Concepts 504
9.6.1 Definitions 504, 9.6.2 Convolution 505, Unit Hydrograph Analysis 510
9.7.1 Rainfall-Excess Reciprocal Method 510, 9.7.2 Least Squares Analysis of Unit Hydrographs 513
Unit Hydrograph Adjustments 515, 9.8.1 S-Hydrograph Method 517
9.8.2 Gamma Distribution Unit Hydrograph 521, 9.8.3 Averaging Storm Event Unit Hydrographs 522

Contents
9.8.4 Dimensionless Unit Hydrographs 524, 9.9 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 526
9.9.1 Time-Area Unit Hydrographs 526, 9.9.2 Hydrograph Assumptions of the Rational Method 533
9.9.3 The SCS Dimensionless Unit Hydrographs 534, 9.9.4 Synder's Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 540
9.10 Designing with Hydrographs 543, 9.1 1 SCS Watershed Model: TR-20 544
9.1 1.1 Watershed Modeling 545, 9.1 1.2 Summary of lnput Requirements 545
9.1 1.3 Basic Structure of lnput Data 546, 9.1 1.4 Standard Control Operations 547
9.1 1.5 Machine Storage 548, 9.1 1.6 Output Options 548
9.1 1.7 Content of Standard Control Records 548, 9.1 1.8 Tabular Data 554
9.1 1.9 The Routing Coefficient Table 555, 9.1 1.10 The Dimensionless Hydrograph Table 556
9.1 1.1 1 Cumulative Rainfall Tables 558, 9.1 1.12 Stream Cross-Section Data Table 562
9.1 1.13 Structure Data Table 562, 9.1 1.14 Discharge Hydrograph Table 564
9.1 1.1 5 Executive Control 565, 9.1 1.16 Modify Standard Control 567
9.1 1.1 7 Executive Sequence 571, Problems 571, Review Questions 581, Discussion Question 582
10 Channel Routing,Notation 584, Introduction 585, 10.1.1 Analysis versus Synthesis 585
Development of the Routing Equation 586, The Convex Routing Method 589
10.3.1 Application of the Convex Method 590, 10.3.2 Estimation of the Routing Coefficient (C) 591
10.3.3 Regression Analysis of the Routing Coefficient 592, Modified Att-Kin Method 593
10.4.1 Calculation of Rating Table Coefficients 595, 10.4.2 Modified Att-Kin Procedure 596
Muskingum Method 600, 10.5.1 Estimation of the Muskingum Routing Coefficients 603
10.5.2 Analysis of the Muskingum Coefficients 604, 10.5.3 Synthesis of the Muskingum Coefficients 605, Comparison of Routing Methods 608, 10.6.1 Application of the Routing Methods 609
St. Venant Equation 612

Contents
10.8 Kinematic Flood Routing 613, 10.8.1 Kinematic-Wave Routing of Sheet Flow 614
10.9 Muskingum-Cunge Method 61 5, Problems 619
Review Questions 621, Discussion Question 622
11 Reservoir Routing, 11.0 Notation 625, 11.1 lntroduction 625, 1 1.1.1 Analysis versus Synthesis 626, 11.1.2 Watershed Planning and Legal Case Studies 627
11.2 The Routing Equation 628, 11.3 Derivation of a Stage-Storage-Discharge Relationship 629
11.3.1 The Stage-Storage Relationship 629, 11.3.2 The Stage-Discharge Relationship 630
11.3.3 Stage-Storage-Discharge Relationships for Two-Stage Risers 635, 11.4 Storage-Indication Routing 638, 11.5 Modified Puls Routing Method 641, 11.6 Design Procedure 643
Problems 652, Review Questions 654, Discussion Question 654, 12 Water Yield and Snowmelt Runoff, 12.0 Notation 657, 12.1 Introduction 657, 12.2 Snowmelt-Runoff Modeling 658
12.3 Empirical Formulas 659, 12.4 Concordant Flow Method 665, 12.5 Degree-Day Method 666
12.5.1 Analysis 667, 12.5.2 Synthesis 668, 12.5.3 Adjustment of Temperatures for Altitude 669
12.6 Temperature Indices of Snowmelt 669, 12.7 Daily Snowmelt Estimation 670
12.7.1 Martinec Model 671, 12.7.2 Analysis of Coefficients 672, 12.8 Snowmelt Recession Estimation 672, 12.9 Water Balance Models 674
Problems 677, Review Questions 682, Discussion Question 683, 13 Water Quality Estimation
13.0 Notation 686, 13.1 lntroduction 686

Contents
13.2 Concentration and Loads 687, 13.2.1 Water Quality Measurements 687
13.2.2 Definitions 688, 13.2.3 Concentration-Flow Relationships 690
13.2.4 Frequency Analysis 693, 13.2.5 Mean Concentration and Load Estimation at Ungaged Locations 694, 13.2.6 Mean Weighted Load 696
13.3 EmpiricalModels 701, 13.3.1 Nationwide Equations for Urban Watersheds 701
13.3.2 Estimation of Stream Nutrient Levels 702, 13.3.3 The Simple Method 703
13.4 MaterialsBalance 705, 13.4.1 Batch Reactors 705
13.4.2 Effect of Temperature 707, 13.5 Flow Dilution 707, 13.6 Streeter-Phelps Oxygen Sag Curve 71 0, 13.7 Routing a Loadograph 713
Problems 718, Review Questions 721, Discussion Question 722
14 Evaporation, 14.0 Notation 725, 14.1 lntroduction 726
14.2 Factors Affecting Evaporation 727, 14.2.1 Temperature 727
14.2.2 Humidity and Vapor Pressure 727, 14.2.3 Radiation 728, 14.2.4 Wind Speed 728
14.3 Energy Budget 730, 14.4 Water Budget 731, 14.5 The Penman Equation 733
14.6 Mass Transfer Estimation 740, 14.7 PanEvaporation 741, Problems 747
Review Questions 749, Discussion Question 749, 15 Erosion and Sedimentation, 15.0 Notation 752
15.1 Introduction 753, 15.1.1 Analysis versus Synthesis 754
15.2 Physical Processes in Erosion and Sedimentation 755, 15.2.1 Stokes' Law 757
15.3 Channel Stability 759, 15.3.1 Methods of Channel Stability Analysis 759
15.3.2 Permissible Velocity Method 760

Contents
15.3.3 Regime Theory Method 763, 15.4 Splash Erosion 765
15.4.1 Empirical Estimation of Kinetic Energy 765, 15.4.2 Ellison Equation 766
15.5 Sheet Erosion 766, 15.5.1 Universal Soil Loss Equation 772, 15.5.2 Other Empirical Equations 772, 15.5.3 Comparison of Methods 773, 15.6 Erosion in Gullies 773
15.6.1 Empirical Formulas for Estimating Gully Erosion 773, 15.6.2 Comparison of Equations 774
15.7 Suspended Sediment Transport 775, 15.7.1 Von Karman Equation 775
15.8 Estimating Bedload Transport 776, 15.8.1 Einstein's Equation 776
15.8.2 Empirical Methods of Estimating Bedload 777, 15.8.3 Equations of the Form 9, = f(V- V,) 777
15.8.4 Equations Based on the Water Discharge 778, 15.8.5 Equations of the Form 9, = f(q-9,) 779
15.8.6 Equations of the Form 9, = f(t-t,) 780, 15.8.7 Comparison of Bedload Equations 781
15.9 Tractive Force Approach to Stable Channel Design 782, 15.9.1 Development of the Tractive Force Model 783, 15.9.2 Critical Tractive Force 787, 15.10 Estimating Sediment Yield 789
15.1 0.1 Flow-Duration, Sediment-Rating-Curve Procedure 790, 15.10.2 Univariate Analysis of Reservoir Sediment Accumulation Records 791, 15.10.3 Multiple Variable Analysis of Reservoir Sediment Accumulation, Records 793, 15.1 0.4 Estimation Using Sediment Delivery Ratios 794
15.10.5 Sediment Routing with Sediment Delivery Ratios 796, 15.1 0.6 Estimating Trap Efficiency 798, Problems 800, Review Questions 80, Discussion Question 804, References 806
Index


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